5. The Sangam Age

1. Introduction to the Sangam Age

The Sangam Age refers to the period (roughly 1st century BCE to 2nd century CE) when a vast bulk of Tamil literature was composed by a body of Tamil scholars and poets in three successive literary gatherings called Sangams. These assemblies were held in the city of Madurai under the royal patronage of the Pandya kings.

First Sangam: Believed to be attended by Gods and legendary sages like Sage Agastya. Unfortunately, all its literary works have perished.
Second Sangam: Produced a large mass of literature, but only the Tolkappiyam (written by Tolkappiar) has survived. It is the oldest extant book of Tamil grammar.
Third Sangam: Attended by many poets, it produced vast literature of which only a fraction has survived. This fraction constitutes the current body of Sangam literature.

2. Sources of Information

A. Literary Source: Tirukkural

It is one of the most celebrated works of the eighteen minor works of the Sangam literature.

Concept

Tirukkural (or Kural): Written by the famous Tamil poet and philosopher Thiruvalluvar. It is a collection of Tamil couplets organized into 133 chapters. It is considered a compound of the teachings of the Dharamashastra, the Arthashastra, and the Kamasutra.

The 133 chapters are grouped into three distinct sections:

Aram: Deals with righteousness and moral values.
Porul: Deals with wealth, socio-economic, and political life.
Inbam: Deals with pleasure and love.

Significance: It preaches simplicity and truth throughout its verses and acts as a guiding manual for many aspects of life, from ploughing land to ruling a country.

B. Archaeological Source: Megaliths

Megaliths were large stone structures, typically box-like graves constructed above ground or underground using heavy stone boulders without any mortar.

Findings: Skeletons were found inside along with pottery (black and red ware), iron tools, weapons, and agricultural implements.
Significance: The presence of daily-use objects inside the graves indicates that the people believed in life after death. The abundance of iron tools shows the transition of society from a pastoral lifestyle to an agricultural one.

3. The Three Tamil Kingdoms (Muvendar)

During the Sangam Age, the Tamil country (Tamilakam) was ruled by three major dynasties: the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas. Their wars and heroic deeds form the main themes of Sangam literature.

Fact

A. The Chera Kingdom

Territory: Comprised the present state of Kerala.
Prominent Ruler: Cheran Senguttuvan (The Red Chera). He was a great warrior who extended his empire up to the Himalayas.
Pattini Cult: Senguttuvan introduced the worship of Kannagi (the ideal wife) as a Goddess. He built a temple dedicated to Kannagi, establishing the Pattini Cult.

B. The Chola Kingdom

Territory: The fertile region watered by the river Kaveri.
Prominent Ruler: Karikalan. He was a great warrior who defeated a confederacy of Cheras, Pandyas, and eleven minor chieftains.
Achievements: Karikalan laid the foundation of Puhar (Kaveripoompattinam) and fortified it. He is credited with clearing forests to expand agriculture and building a massive dam (Kallanai) across the river Kaveri for irrigation.

C. The Pandya Kingdom

Territory: Comprised present-day Madurai, Tirunelveli, and Ramanathapuram.
Prominent Ruler: Nedunchezhian. He defeated the combined forces of the Cheras, Cholas, and five minor chieftains.
Significance: The Pandya kings were great patrons of art and literature and hosted the famous Tamil Sangams in their capital city, Madurai.

4. Society during the Sangam Age

A. Social Classes

According to the grammatical treatise Tolkappiyam, the society was divided into four main castes (though not as rigid as the North Indian Vedic Varna system):

Arasar: The ruling class (kings and nobles).
Anthanar: The priests and scholars who played a significant role in religion and state administration.
Vanigar: The merchants and traders who carried out commerce.
Vellalar: The agriculturists and landlords. The richer Vellalars held high administrative and military posts, while the poorer ones were peasant cultivators.

Apart from these, there were manual laborers, artisans, hunters, and wandering minstrels (Panars).

B. Position of Women

High Status: The status of women was generally respectable. They had the freedom to choose their husbands and were not restricted by the Purdah system.
Education: Women were educated, and there were several renowned female poets during this era, such as Avvaiyar and Nachchellaiyar.
Social Evils: While women had many freedoms, the practice of Sati (widow burning) did exist, though it was largely confined to the higher classes. Widowhood was generally considered a miserable state.

5. Economy and Occupations

A. Agriculture

Agriculture was the primary occupation of the people. The land was fertile, especially in the Kaveri delta.
Main Crops: Paddy (Rice) was the most important crop. Other major crops included sugarcane, cotton, pepper, ginger, turmeric, and cardamom.
The state took active steps to develop irrigation (like the dam built by Karikalan).

B. Crafts and Occupations

Next to agriculture, spinning and weaving (cotton and silk) were the most important crafts.
Other specialized professions included carpentry, shipbuilding, metalworking (iron and copper), pottery, and ornament-making (using gold, pearls, and ivory).

C. Trade and Commerce

The Sangam Age witnessed a highly prosperous internal and external trade network.

Important

External Trade (The Roman Connection): There was an extensive, highly lucrative trade with the Roman Empire, Egypt, and Arabia. South Indian pepper was in such high demand in Rome that it was called Yavana Priya (loved by the Romans). Rome paid for these goods in solid gold coins.

Internal Trade: Goods were exchanged mainly through the barter system. For example, salt was commonly exchanged for paddy.
Major Exports: Pepper, pearls, ivory, silk, cotton cloth, precious stones, and spices (cardamom, cinnamon).
Major Imports: Gold, horses, sweet wine, glass, and copper.
Important Ports: Muziris (Cheras), Puhar/Kaveripoompattinam (Cholas), and Korkai (Pandyas) were bustling centers of international trade, housing families of rich foreign merchants (Yavanas).