2. The Vedic Period

1. Introduction to the Vedic Age

The Vedic Period refers to the time when Aryans first settled in India and composed the Vedic texts. This period is broadly divided into two phases based on the expansion of Aryans and the development of their culture.

• Early Vedic Period (1500-1000 BCE): The period when Aryans first settled in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent (Sapta Sindhu region). The Rig Veda was composed during this time.
• Later Vedic Period (1000-500 BCE): The period when iron began to be used. Iron tools helped Aryans clear forests, allowing them to move eastward and settle along the Gangetic valley (Ganga-Yamuna doab).

2. Sources of the Vedic Period

Our knowledge of this era is derived from extensive literary texts and supporting archaeological evidence.

A. Literary Sources: The Vedas

The term 'Veda' is derived from the Sanskrit word 'Vid', which means knowledge. The Vedic literature is divided into Shruti and Smriti.

• The Rig Veda: The oldest religious text in the world, known as the "First Testament of Mankind". It is divided into 10 mandalas (books) and contains hymns dedicated to various Gods. It contains the famous Gayatri Mantra. UNESCO has included it in the list of literature signifying World Human Heritage.
• The Sama Veda: 'Sama' means sweet song or melody. It contains hymns borrowed from the Rig Veda that were meant to be sung by priests during sacrifices.
• The Yajur Veda: It deals with rituals and how sacrifices should be performed.
• The Atharva Veda: It deals with magic, charms, and spells to drive away diseases and evil spirits.

B. Literary Sources: The Epics

The two great Indian epics form a crucial source of information for the Later Vedic Period.

• The Ramayana: Originally composed in Sanskrit by Sage Valmiki. It tells the story of Lord Rama's exile, the abduction of his wife Sita by Ravana, and the battle between Rama and Ravana. It highlights duty, devotion, and love.
• The Mahabharata: Believed to be the work of Sage Vyasa. It is the longest epic in the world. It deals with the conflict between two branches of the Kuru tribe—the Kauravas and the Pandavas. The Bhagavad Gita is a part of this epic, containing Lord Krishna's spiritual teachings to Arjuna on the battlefield.

C. Archaeological Sources

• Iron: The discovery of iron (around 1000 BCE) marked a major shift. Iron was harder, cheaper, and more durable than copper. It revolutionized agriculture (iron plough-heads, sickles to clear forests) and defense (swords, shields, spears). It led to the growth of new occupations like carpentry, tanning, and tool-making.
• Pottery:
  • Painted Grey Ware (PGW): Smooth, even-coloured pottery with floral or geometric patterns in black. It is primarily associated with the Early to Later Vedic transition.
  • Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW): Very glossy and shining pottery associated with the end of the Later Vedic Period (around 500 BCE).

3. Political Organisation

The administrative structure of the Aryans evolved significantly from the Early to the Later Vedic period.

• Position of the King (Early Vedic): The king (Rajan) was elected by the tribe. His power was limited by tribal assemblies. He had no regular standing army. He was assisted by the Purohit (priest) and Senani (commander).
• Position of the King (Later Vedic): Kingship became hereditary and associated with divine rights. The king became an absolute ruler. He maintained a regular army and collected compulsory taxes.
• Assemblies:
  • Vidatha: The oldest assembly performing military and religious functions. (Women participated).
  • Sabha: A council of elders performing advisory and judicial functions.
  • Samiti: A large assembly of the people.
  Note: In the Later Vedic period, these popular assemblies lost their importance and power was usurped by the king and wealthy nobles.

4. Social Organisation

The foundation of the Aryan society was the patriarchal family. The head of the family was called the Grihapati or Kulapa.

The Four Class Divisions (Varnas)

• Early Vedic Period: Society was divided based on profession and not birth. It was flexible. A person could choose their occupation. The four classes were:
  • Brahmins: Priests and teachers.
  • Kshatriyas: Warriors and rulers.
  • Vaishyas: Farmers, merchants, and artisans.
  • Shudras: Labourers who served the other three classes.
• Later Vedic Period: The Varna system became rigid and hereditary (birth-based caste system). Brahmins and Kshatriyas gained supreme power and privileges, while the condition of Shudras deteriorated. Inter-caste marriages were restricted.

The Four Ashramas (Stages of Life)

In the Later Vedic period, the lifespan of an Aryan was divided into four stages of 25 years each:

1. Brahmacharya (0-25 years): The student life focused on acquiring education and discipline at a Gurukula.
2. Grihastha (25-50 years): The life of a householder, getting married, and taking care of the family.
3. Vanaprastha (50-75 years): Retiring from worldly life, leaving home, and acquiring spiritual knowledge in the forest.
4. Sanyasa (75-100 years): Complete renunciation of the world to meditate and attain moksha (salvation).

5. Position of Women

There was a drastic change in the status of women as society progressed from the Early to the Later Vedic age.

• Early Vedic Period: Women enjoyed a high and respectable position.
  • Child marriage and Sati did not exist.
  • Girls received education (the Upanayana ceremony was performed for them).
  • They had the freedom to choose their husbands (Swayamvara).
  • They actively participated in tribal assemblies (Sabha and Vidatha) and religious ceremonies.
• Later Vedic Period: The status of women saw a significant decline.
  • They were denied the right to Upanayana and access to education.
  • They lost the right to attend political assemblies.
  • Child marriage emerged, and their freedom to choose husbands was curtailed.

6. Education System

Education was imparted through the Gurukula system. The word Gurukula means "the family of the Guru."

• Students lived in the house of the Guru (teacher), usually located on the outskirts of the city or in forests.
• The goal of education was the physical, mental, and spiritual development of the pupil.
• Subjects taught included the Vedas, Puranas, grammar, mathematics, ethics, logic, and military science.
• Most teaching was done orally. At the completion of education, students paid Guru Dakshina (fees/respect) to the teacher.

7. Economic Life

The economy underwent massive transformations, largely due to the discovery of iron.

• Agriculture: They cultivated barley, wheat, and later rice. The use of iron ploughshares allowed them to till heavy soils, significantly increasing crop yields.
• Crafts and Trades: Surplus agricultural production supported the rise of specialized craftsmen. Important professions included weavers, blacksmiths, carpenters, tanners, chariot-makers, and potters.
• Trade: Internal trade flourished. The barter system was largely used, though a unit of value called Nishka (gold ornament/coin) began to be used as a medium of exchange in the Later Vedic period. Ships and boats were used for river and sea trade.