History Revision Notes

Detailed & Comprehensive - Class 10 CBSE (2025-26)

Created by Team Vardaan

1. The Vision of Nationalism (Frederic Sorrieu)

In 1848, French artist Frederic Sorrieu prepared a series of 4 prints visualising his dream of a world made up of "Democratic and Social Republics."

2. The French Revolution (1789)

The first clear expression of nationalism. Transfer of sovereignty from monarchy to a body of French citizens.

3. Napoleon (1799-1815) & The Civil Code

Napoleon destroyed democracy but revolutionised administration.

• Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code):
  • Did away with all privileges based on birth.
  • Established equality before the law.
  • Secured the right to property.
  • Abolished feudal system and serfdom (in Dutch Republic, Switz, Italy, Germany).
  • Removed guild restrictions in towns. Improved transport/communication.
• Reaction of People: Initially welcomed as "Harbingers of Liberty" (Brussels, Mainz, Milan). Later turned hostile due to: Increased taxation, Censorship, Forced conscription into French armies.

4. The Making of Nationalism in Europe

Mid-18th Century: No "nation-states". Germany, Italy, Switz were divided kingdoms. Eastern Europe (Habsburg Empire) was a patchwork of diverse people (Magyars, Slavs, etc.).

A. The Aristocracy and New Middle Class

• Landed Aristocracy: Dominant class, owned estates, spoke French, connected by marriage, numerically small.
• Peasantry: Majority of population. West: Tenants/Small owners. East: Serfs.
• New Middle Class: Emerged due to industrialisation (commercial class, professionals). They stood for Liberalism.

B. Liberal Nationalism

• Political: Government by consent, end of autocracy/clerical privileges, constitution, parliament. (Note: Did not necessarily mean Universal Suffrage; women/non-propertied men were excluded).
• Economic: Freedom of markets, abolition of state restrictions on movement of goods/capital.
• Zollverein (1834): A customs union formed at the initiative of Prussia.
  • Abolished tariff barriers.
  • Reduced currencies from over 30 to 2.
  • Network of railways promoted mobility.

C. A New Conservatism (1815)

After Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo (1815), conservatives (like Metternich) wanted to preserve Monarchy, Church, Hierarchy, Property, Family.

D. The Revolutionaries (Giuseppe Mazzini)

Secret societies sprang up to fight for liberty. Giuseppe Mazzini (Italian) born in Genoa (1807).

• Member of Carbonari. Exiled in 1831.
• Founded Young Italy (Marseilles) and Young Europe (Berne).
• Believed "God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind."
• Metternich described him as: "The most dangerous enemy of our social order."

5. The Age of Revolutions (1830–1848)

• July 1830 (France): Bourbon kings overthrown; Louis Philippe installed as constitutional monarch. Metternich remarked: "When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold."
• Belgian Revolution: Belgium broke away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
• Greek War of Independence: Struggle began in 1821. Supported by West Europeans and poets (Lord Byron). Treaty of Constantinople (1832) recognised Greece as an independent nation.

1848: The Revolution of the Liberals

• Frankfurt Parliament: 18 May 1848. 831 elected representatives marched to the Church of St. Paul. Drafted a constitution for a German nation headed by a monarchy subject to parliament.
• Failure: King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia rejected it and joined other monarchs. The parliament was eroded by lack of support from workers/artisans and troops disbanded it.
• Women: Formed associations, founded newspapers, but were denied suffrage. Stood as observers in the visitor's gallery.

6. Unification of Germany and Italy

The Strange Case of Britain

• No sudden revolution. Long process. Ethnic identities: English, Welsh, Scot, Irish.
• Glorious Revolution (1688): English parliament seized power from monarchy.
• Act of Union (1707): England + Scotland = United Kingdom of Great Britain. Scotland's culture/language suppressed.
• Ireland: Divided (Catholics vs Protestants). English helped Protestants dominate. Wolfe Tone's revolt (1798) failed. Ireland forcibly incorporated in 1801.
• Symbols: British Flag (Union Jack), Anthem (God Save Our Noble King), English language.

7. Visualising the Nation (Allegory)

8. Nationalism and Imperialism (The Balkans)

• The Balkans: Region of geographical/ethnic variation (modern Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, etc.). Inhabitants called Slavs.
• Controlled by Ottoman Empire.
• Spread of romantic nationalism + disintegration of Ottoman Empire = Explosive region.
• Rivalry: Big powers (Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary) competed for control over trade/colonies. This led to WWI.

1. Impact of First World War

• Created a new economic and political situation.
• Economic: Huge defence expenditure financed by war loans/taxes. Customs duties raised, Income Tax introduced.
• Prices: Doubled between 1913-1918. Extreme hardship.
• Villages: Forced recruitment of soldiers caused anger.
• 1918-21: Crop failure and Influenza epidemic (12-13 million died).

2. The Idea of Satyagraha

Gandhiji returned to India in Jan 1915 from South Africa.

• 1917 Champaran (Bihar): Against oppressive indigo plantation system.
• 1917 Kheda (Gujarat): For peasants affected by crop failure/plague (demand revenue relaxation).
• 1918 Ahmedabad (Gujarat): For cotton mill workers (demand wage hike).

3. The Rowlatt Act (1919)

• Passed hurriedly by Imperial Legislative Council despite Indian opposition.
• Gave government power to repress political activities and detain prisoners for 2 years without trial.
• Rowlatt Satyagraha: Gandhi started with a Hartal on 6 April 1919.
• Jallianwala Bagh (13 April 1919): Baisakhi fair in Amritsar. General Dyer blocked exits and fired. Goal: "To produce a moral effect" (terror).
• Khilafat Issue: To defend the temporal powers of the Khalifa (Ottoman Emperor). Khilafat Committee formed in Bombay (March 1919) by Muhammad Ali & Shaukat Ali. Gandhi saw this as opportunity to unite Hindus and Muslims.

4. Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM)

• Hind Swaraj (1909): Gandhi wrote that British rule survived only because of Indian cooperation.
• Nagpur Session (Dec 1920): NCM programme adopted.
• Started: January 1921.

Withdrawal: Feb 1922 after Chauri Chaura incident (police station burnt, 22 policemen died). Gandhi felt people needed training.

5. Towards Civil Disobedience

• Swaraj Party: C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed it to argue for return to council politics.
• Simon Commission (1928): Statutory commission under John Simon. No Indian member. Greeted with "Go Back Simon". Lala Lajpat Rai assaulted.
• Lahore Congress (Dec 1929): Under J.L. Nehru. Formalised demand for Purna Swaraj. 26 Jan 1930 declared Independence Day.

6. How Participants Saw the Movement (CDM)

• Rich Peasants (Patidars/Jats): Hit by trade depression/falling prices. Fight for Swaraj = Struggle against high revenue. Disappointed when movement called off in 1931 without revenue reduction.
• Poor Peasants: Wanted unpaid rent to landlords remitted. Congress hesitant to support them (fear of upsetting landlords).
• Business Class: Reaction against colonial policies restricting business. Formed FICCI (1927). Led by Purshottamdas Thakurdas, G.D. Birla. Wanted protection against imports and Rupee-Sterling ratio. Saw Swaraj as time when trade would flourish.
• Industrial Workers: Did not participate in large numbers (except Nagpur). Some wore Gandhi caps.
• Women: Large scale participation. Protest marches, salt manufacture, picketing. Moved out of homes.

7. Limits of Civil Disobedience

• Dalits: Congress ignored them for long (fear of Sanatanis). Dr. B.R. Ambedkar organised Depressed Classes Association (1930). Demanded separate electorates.
• Poona Pact (Sept 1932): Gandhi fasted against separate electorates. Pact gave reserved seats to Depressed Classes but voted by general electorate.
• Muslims: Lukewarm response. Alienated after decline of Non-Cooperation/Khilafat. Muhammad Ali Jinnah willing to give up separate electorates if Muslims assured reserved seats in Central Assembly and representation in proportion to population in Bengal/Punjab. M.R. Jayakar (Hindu Mahasabha) opposed compromise.

8. Sense of Collective Belonging

1. The Pre-Modern World

Globalisation has a long history of trade, migration, and movement of capital.

• Silk Routes: Connected Asia with Europe/Africa. Chinese silk and pottery, Indian textiles/spices, Gold/Silver from Europe travelled these routes. Buddhism/Christianity/Islam spread via these.
• Food Travels:
  • Noodles travelled West from China to become Spaghetti.
  • New Crops: Potato, soya, maize, groundnuts, chillies introduced to Europe/Asia after Christopher Columbus discovered the Americas.
  • Irish Potato Famine (1840s): Poor peasants dependent on potatoes starved when crop failed.
• Conquest, Disease, and Trade:
  • Americas: Abundant crops/minerals transformed trade. Silver from Peru/Mexico financed European trade.
  • Biological Warfare: Spanish conquerors used Smallpox germs. Native Americans had no immunity; it killed whole communities, paving way for conquest.
  • El Dorado: Fabled city of gold in South America.

1. The First Printed Books

• China: Developed hand printing (woodblock). Accordion book (folded, stitched). Imperial state sponsored print for civil service exams.
• Japan: Buddhist missionaries introduced print (768-770 AD). Diamond Sutra (868 AD) is the oldest Japanese book. Ukiyo (pictures of the floating world) developed by Kitagawa Utamaro.

2. Print Comes to Europe

• Marco Polo: Brought woodblock knowledge from China to Italy (1295).
• Vellum: Expensive parchment used by aristocrats (considered print 'cheap').
• Johann Gutenberg (Germany): Invented the Printing Press (1430s) adapting olive press technology. First book: The Bible (180 copies in 3 years).
• Print Revolution: Reduced cost, increased speed. Shift from hearing public to reading public.

3. Print and the French Revolution

Print created conditions for the revolution:

1. Popularised ideas of Enlightenment thinkers (Voltaire, Rousseau) - Rule of reason.
2. Created culture of dialogue and debate.
3. Literature mocked royalty (cartoons/caricatures).
4. Louise-Sebastien Mercier: "Tremble, therefore, tyrants of the world!"

4. The Nineteenth Century (Children, Women, Workers)

• Children: Primary education compulsory. Grimm Brothers (Germany) collected folk tales.
• Women: Penny magazines, manuals on behaviour. Women novelists: Jane Austen, Bronte Sisters, George Eliot.
• Workers: Lending libraries. Self-educated workers wrote autobiographies.
• Innovations: Richard M. Hoe (Power-driven cylindrical press - 8000 sheets/hr). Offset press.

5. India and the World of Print

• Manuscripts: Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic. Expensive/Fragile. Continued till late 19th century.
• First Press: Portuguese in Goa.
• Bengal Gazette (1780): Edited by James Augustus Hickey. "Commercial paper open to all, influenced by none". Published gossip about Company officials.
• Reform Debates:
  • Rammohun Roy: Sambad Kaumudi (1821).
  • Hindu Orthodoxy: Samachar Chandrika.
  • Persian: Jam-i-Jahan Nama.
  • Deoband Seminary (1867): Published thousands of Fatwas for Muslims.
  • Ramcharitmanas: Printed in Calcutta (1810). Naval Kishore Press (Lucknow).

6. Print and Censorship

• Vernacular Press Act (1878): Modelled on Irish Press Laws. Gave government rights to censor reports in vernacular newspapers.
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak: Wrote in Kesari (Marathi). Imprisoned in 1908 leading to protests.